What Are The Three Types Of Articular Systems? 50 Reference List

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50 Reference List: What Are The 3 Types Of Articular System | Endocrine System

• The brain is the part of the central nervous system that is contained in the cranial cavity of the skull. It floats in a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which is filtered from arterial blood. CSF acts as a cushion and shock absorber, and makes the brain neutrally boyant. Ependymal cells (remember those?) help circulate the CSF to distribute and exchange chemical substances throughout the brain and into the spinal cord. The ependymal cells line the fluid-filled cavities in the center of the brain, called ventricals, which also contains CSF. - Source: Internet
• The peripheral nervous system is responsible for many functions, and as such has numerous sub-divisions that specialise on different tasks. The sensory, or afferent, division receives signals from the periphery and carries these into the central nervous system. The motor, or efferent, division transmits signals for actions outward from the central nervous system to the peripheral organs and muscles. These motor functions come in two forms: somatic, and autonomic. Somatic functions are perhaps the easiest concept of the nervous system to grasp, as these dictate all our voluntary actions, such as choosing to pick up a cup, or jump on the bed, according to the medical library LibreTexts . - Source: Internet
• While several degenerative nervous system disorders primarily or exclusively impact the central nervous system, there are a collection of diseases that instead impact the peripheral nervous system. Together these diseases are referred to as peripheral neuropathies. As the impacted region is the peripheral nervous system, such neuropathies lead to loss of sensation and regulatory control of extremities. These include a loss of coordination and feeling in fingers and toes, and a lack of balance, according to the University of Michigan Health (opens in new tab). The causes of peripheral neuropathy are yet to be fully elucidated, but scientists have determined diabetes , which causes protracted periods of high blood sugar , as one of the primary causes. - Source: Internet
• : Also called efferent neurons, motor neurons carry information from the brain and spinal cord to muscle fibers throughout the body. These motor neurons allow us to take physical action in response to stimuli in the environment. Sensory neurons: Also called afferent neurons, sensory neurons carry information from the nerves to the central nervous system. The sensory neurons allow us to take in sensory information and send it to the brain and spinal cord. - Source: Internet
• Neurons and their various complexities can seem like a daunting topic to understand. However, knowing that distinct types of neurons play different roles within the body can help you develop a basic understanding of the nervous system’s structure. Understanding the types of neurons and how they affect the body can provide an explanation for different disorders of the nervous system, from traumatic spinal cord injuries to neurodegenerative diseases. - Source: Internet
• Bones, muscles and joints make up the musculoskeletal system, along with cartilage, tendons, ligaments and connective tissue. This system gives your body its structure and support and lets you move around. The parts of the musculoskeletal system grow and change throughout life. Injuries and various illnesses can damage bones, muscles and joints. - Source: Internet
• “You have these three different systems that are all located in different parts of the brain, but they are all co-activated at once,” said lead study author Roger Beaty, a postdoctoral fellow studying cognitive neuroscience at Harvard University. “People who are better able to co-activate them [came] up with more-creative responses.” - Source: Internet
• Cardiac muscle forms the heart and is not part of the musculoskeletal system. Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle has a regular pattern of fibers that also appear as stripes under a microscope. However, cardiac muscle contracts and relaxes rhythmically without a person’s awareness. - Source: Internet
• The innate, hard-wired reflex responses of our peripheral nervous system help keep us safe from danger, but they are not the only automatic functions performed by the peripheral nervous system. When actions are not voluntary, or somatic, they are autonomic, which means they operate independently of conscious thought. Such processes include the heart beat, the churning of food in the digestive tract by contracting muscles, and respiration. While our brain can assume control of a few of these processes (think of holding your breath), autonomic functions will continue to operate even when we fall asleep or if we are knocked unconscious. - Source: Internet
• The peripheral nervous system includes the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. The PNS includes the peripheral nerves, neuromuscular junctions, cranial nerves, and spinal nerves. This system also carries information to and from the central nervous system. - Source: Internet
• The majority of our neurons are shielded behind protective fluid and bone, where they receive signals from and dictate to organs around the body. However, the signals sent from the central nervous system must have some means of reaching their target organs. And for that they need to connect to nerves that stretch from the central nervous system all the way to the extremities of the body. This second network of nerves is called the peripheral nervous system. Together, the central and peripheral form the major divisions of the nervous system, according to the National Cancer Institute . - Source: Internet
• When you’re reading this website, your nervous system is performing several functions simultaneously. The visual system is processing what is seen on the page; the motor system controls the click of the mouse; and (if you’re lucky) the prefrontal cortex maintains your attention. Even fundamental functions, like breathing and regulation of body temperature, are controlled by the nervous system. A nervous system is an organism’s control center: it processes sensory information from outside (and inside) the body and controls all behaviors: from eating to sleeping to finding a mate. - Source: Internet
• These cells form the resident immune system of the brain. They are activated in response to tissue damage and have the capability to recognise foreign antigens and initiate phagocytosis to remove foreign material. If needed, microglia are also able to function as antigen-presenting cells. - Source: Internet
• The somatic system is the part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for carrying sensory and motor information to and from the central nervous system. The somatic nervous system derives its name from the Greek word soma, which means “body.” - Source: Internet
• If the communication from the nervous system is severed from the skeletal muscles, the skeletal muscles will not be able to produce movement for the body. The body is now in a state of paralysis. This is known as quadriplegia. The only organ that is not directly dependent upon the nervous system is the Cardiac (heart) muscle. - Source: Internet
• Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. According to the National Institutes of Health (opens in new tab), the central nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of neurons) and nerves that connect to one another and to the central nervous system. - Source: Internet
• Cartilage from the adult shoulder joint (a ball and socket joint between the scapula and the humeral head) has also been studied in many biomedical studies, which in animal models is probably due to its availability as a spare tissue. Compared with knee cartilage, humeral cartilage has much simpler contours, which has be used as a classical three-layer model of articular cartilage in a number of studies.159 However, various topographical variations are also known in humeral cartilage, including morphological, biochemical, and biomechanical properties.147,160–167 These variations are also age- and sex-dependent,160,168,169 which show the complexity of the issue. - Source: Internet
• Neurons are the agents of signalling in our bodies, but they do not work alone. Axons, which carry signals away from the neuron’s cell body, are coated in a sheaf of myelin. Myelin sheaves are produced in the central nervous system by cells called oligodendrocytes, enabling myelin’s function of protecting and facilitating nerve conductivity, according to the National Multiple Sclerosis Society (opens in new tab). In multiple sclerosis, an abnormal immune response within the central nervous system strips away the protective myelin and causes lots of nerve scarring (sclerosis), which gives the disease its name. Research efforts are underway to treat the disease by encouraging myelin regeneration. - Source: Internet
• The primary role of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the organs, limbs, and skin. The nerves of the PNS extend from the central nervous system to the outermost areas of the body. The peripheral system allows the brain and spinal cord to receive and send information to other areas of the body, which allows us to react to stimuli in our environment. - Source: Internet
• The cerebrum and cerebral cortex make up the majority of the human brain. The outermost part of the cerebrum is a thick piece of nervous system tissue called the cerebral cortex , which is folded into hills called gyri (singular: gyrus) and valleys called sulci (singular: sulcus). The cortex is made up of two hemispheres (right and left) and four lobes ( frontal , parietal , temporal , occipital ). The two hemispheres are joined by a thick fiber bundle called the corpus callosum (Latin: “tough body”) which connects the two hemispheres and allows information to be passed from one side to the other. Although there are some brain functions that are localized more to one hemisphere than the other, the functions of the two hemispheres are largely redundant. - Source: Internet
• In addition to the depth-dependent macromolecules in cartilage (proteoglycans and collagen fibers), many other molecular concentrations in cartilage are depth-dependent. A recent study quantitatively analyzed extractable proteins in human lateral tibial cartilage, by first applying a non-targeted mass spectrometry approach (iTRAQ: isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation) and subsequently by analyzing protein distribution using a targeted multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry. The unique distribution patterns of 70 ECM proteins were identified in the lateral tibial plateau, revealing groups of proteins with a preferential distribution to the superficial, intermediate or deep regions of articular cartilage.88 It is likely that most, if not all measurable quantities in articular cartilage have some types of depth-dependency. - Source: Internet
• The nervous system is the most complex and highly organized body system. It receives information from the sensory organs via nerves, transmits the information through the spinal cord, and processes it in the brain. The nervous system directs our body’s reactions to the world and also controls most of our internal functions, everything from muscle movement and blood vessel dilation to the learning of anatomy and physiology facts. How does it manage all this? By sending lightning-quick signals, electrical and chemical, between cells. - Source: Internet
• The processes that we cannot control, however, are by no means unchanging. Instead the organs under the control of the autonomic nervous system are regulated by a balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Depending on the stimulus, these systems increase or decrease activity of our internal organs, helping to ensure our body is always ready to respond to the challenge at hand. - Source: Internet
• A single oligodendrocyte has the capacity to myelinate up to 50 axonal segments. They are equivalent to the Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. Further information on the myelin sheath can be found here. - Source: Internet
• In addition to the fact that these histological zones merely represent a conceptual “discretization” of the continuous functions in articular cartilage,77 each histological zone itself also has its own distinct secondary structures. For example, the superficial zone was found to have several distinctly different sub-layers, with the topmost layer being called the lamina splendens.25 This lamina splendens is a thin (several micrometers in thickness) cell-free layer of tightly packed and tangentially oriented collagen fibers,25,82 which can be viewed as a filter or membrane that prevents the entrance or escape of molecules larger than 6 nm.83,84 Consequently, proteoglycan aggregates in healthy cartilage are too large to pass through the small pores in the surface layer of articular cartilage, preventing the “leakage” of the charge density. An injury or lesion of this membrane would surely signal an onset of the cartilage disease. - Source: Internet
• The collagen network of the articular cartilage’s ECM is synthesized by the chondrocytes during skeletal growth. The synthesis virtually ceases in the adult articular cartilage. In the absence of an injury, the turnover time of collagen II in human femoral head cartilage has been estimated as several hundred years. The rate of collagen synthesis can increase by up to an order of magnitude following an injury;53 however, this is almost never sufficient to repair the damage. - Source: Internet
• Recap The PNS is made up of two divisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic system contains sensory and motor neurons. It sends and receives sensory information and motor signals. The autonomic system is responsible for regulating involuntary body functions. - Source: Internet
• : By regulating the flight-or-fight response, the sympathetic system prepares the body to expend energy to respond to environmental threats. When action is needed, the sympathetic system triggers a response by accelerating heart rate, increasing breathing rate, boosting blood flow to muscles, activating sweat secretion, and dilating the pupils. Parasympathetic system: This helps maintain normal body functions and conserve physical resources. Once a threat has passed, this system will slow the heart rate, slow breathing, reduce blood flow to muscles, and constrict the pupils. This allows the body to return to a normal resting state. - Source: Internet
• When we think of the nervous system, our thoughts immediately go to the brain. The brain is a hive of neuronal activity, with billions of interwoven neurons firing to preserve and recall memories, coordinate thoughts and speech, and plan future actions. Along with the spinal cord, the bone-clad parts of our nervous system are naturally called the central nervous system. - Source: Internet
• The viscous dampening of the flow of interstitial fluid is crucial to both the physiology and biomechanics of articular cartilage. Biomechanically, it provides load-carrying capacity through the slow transient response to load. Physiologically, the dampening provides protection for the chondrocytes and ECM, and even represents a major factor in controlling the metabolic behavior of chondrocytes and ECM maintenance.115,116 - Source: Internet
• Synovial joints are a certain type of joint that allow for a wide range of motion. They include the knee (Figure 1.1), hip, shoulder and elbow, as well as numerous smaller joints.1 The adjective “synovial” refers to the presence of a synovial cavity – a space enclosed by a dense, fibrous articular capsule filled with synovial fluid. - Source: Internet
• Functionally, the nervous system has two main subdivisions: the somatic, or voluntary, component; and the autonomic, or involuntary, component. The autonomic nervous system regulates certain body processes, such as blood pressure and the rate of breathing, that work without conscious effort, according to Merck Manuals (opens in new tab). The somatic system consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord with muscles and sensory receptors in the skin. - Source: Internet
• Across different animal species, a linear relationship of body mass to cartilage thickness was found, with femoral condyle cartilage thickness ranging from 90 µm in mouse, to 2000 µm in humans, to 3000 µm in an Asian elephant with the medial condyle being on average thicker than the lateral condyle.16 This study also found a non-dependency of GAG to the body mass of different species but a negative relationship of DNA (chondrocytes) to body mass. Since different species have a different distribution of applied stress in their joints, the properties of articular cartilage should be considered different between species.137 - Source: Internet
• In the major joints of large animals and adult humans, the thickness of articular cartilage ranges from approximately 2 mm (bovine knee articular cartilage) to approximately 4 mm (human knee). Cartilage in smaller human joints and in many laboratory animals is much thinner.16 Histologically, articular cartilage is commonly subdivided into four distinct and parallel zones based on the local orientation of the collagen fibrils. These zones are the superficial zone, the transitional zone, the radial zone, and the calcified zone (Figure 1.2). - Source: Internet
• Articular cartilage has a low cellularity, with the living cells (chondrocytes) occupying only approximately 2% of the volume of mature human cartilage.17 The bulk of the tissue is the extracellular matrix (ECM), which depends crucially on this small number of chondrocytes to synthesize and maintain articular cartilage over the lifetime. The loss of the cells will induce fatigue to the ECM and eventually a failure of the joint. - Source: Internet
• • the articular surfaces are relatively flat, allowing the bones to glide over one another. Pivot - allows for rotation only. It is formed by a central bony pivot, which is surrounded by a bony-ligamentous ring E.g. proximal and distal radioulnar joints, atlantoaxial joint. - Source: Internet
• In other words, it is the autonomic system that controls aspects of the body that are usually not under voluntary control. This system allows these functions to take place without needing to consciously think about them happening. The autonomic system is further divided into two branches: - Source: Internet
• Skeletal muscles, which are responsible for posture and movement, are attached to bones and arranged in opposing groups around joints. For example, muscles that bend the elbow (biceps) are countered by muscles that straighten it (triceps). These countering movements are balanced. The balance makes movements smooth, which helps prevent damage to the musculoskeletal system. - Source: Internet
• The nervous system is made up of neurons, specialized cells that can receive and transmit chemical or electrical signals, and glia, cells that provide support functions for the neurons by playing an information processing role that is complementary to neurons. Nerves are bundles of nervous tissue, often containing hundreds to thousands of axons wrapped in connective tissue. Nerves in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) carry information to and from neurons in the the central nervous system (CNS), where information is integrated and processed. - Source: Internet
• The picture you have in your mind of the nervous system probably includes the brain, the nervous tissue contained within the cranium, and the spinal cord, the extension of nervous tissue within the vertebral column. That suggests it is made of two organs—and you may not even think of the spinal cord as an organ—but the nervous system is a very complex structure. Within the brain, many different and separate regions are responsible for many different and separate functions. It is as if the nervous system is composed of many organs that all look similar and can only be differentiated using tools such as the microscope or electrophysiology. In comparison, it is easy to see that the stomach is different than the esophagus or the liver, so you can imagine the digestive system as a collection of specific organs. - Source: Internet
• Since the primary function of a synovial joint is load bearing and facilitation of mechanical motion, the biomechanical properties of articular cartilage are the ultimate measure of its health.51 Several characteristics describe the essential biomechanical function of articular cartilage: Through its low friction, articular cartilage facilitates flexional and rotational movement within the joint. Articular cartilage prevents direct contact between bones and other parts of the joint, thus protecting the relatively brittle bone from frictional wear and the softer tissues of the joints from abrasion. Through deformation, articular cartilage distributes the forces exerted on the bone to a greater contact area. Known as load processing, this reduces contact stresses between the bones and protects the bones from fatigue. - Source: Internet
• The spinal column transmits information to the CNS for processing. How does the information get to the spinal column to begin with? And how do commands from the CNS get carried out? That is the job of nerves and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). If the CNS is like the power plant of the nervous system, creates the signals that control the functions of the body, then the PNS is like the wires that go to individual houses. Without those “wires,” the signals produced by the CNS could not control the body (and the CNS would not be able to receive sensory information from the body either). - Source: Internet
• Simply put,Tendons are what attach a muscle to a bone. Fasciae connect muscles to other muscles. Tendons and Fascia work together with the muscles, which creates the muscular system necessary for movement. - Source: Internet
• Proteoglycans constitute the principal factor responsible for cartilage hydration. The polyanionic nature of proteoglycans combined with their hydrophilicity as carbohydrates enable them to bind large amounts of hydration water. The large size of proteoglycan aggregates means that they are effectively immobilized within the cartilage ECM and do not “leak” from the swollen tissue. Proteoglycans osmotically attract water into articular cartilage and create a sufficiently large osmotic pressure for the tissue to retain significant amount of water even under mechanical compression (see Section 1.6). - Source: Internet
• Arthritis is a common disorder of synovial joints that involves inflammation of the joint. This often results in significant joint pain, along with swelling, stiffness, and reduced joint mobility. There are more than 100 different forms of arthritis. Arthritis may arise from aging, damage to the articular cartilage, autoimmune diseases, bacterial or viral infections, or unknown (probably genetic) causes. - Source: Internet
• “Of all the diseases of the nervous system, the most common difficulty that people have is pain, and much of that is nerve-related,” according to Dr. Shai Gozani, founder and CEO of NeuroMetrix, a medical device company. “There are 100 million people who live with chronic pain.” - Source: Internet
• The ependyma is the thin lining of the ventricular system of the brain and spinal cord. This lining is made up of ependymal cells, the basal membranes of which are attached to astrocytes. The main function of these cells is the production of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) as a part of the choroid plexus. - Source: Internet
• joint, in anatomy, a structure that separates two or more adjacent elements of the skeletal system. Depending on the type of joint, such separated elements may or may not move on one another. This article discusses the joints of the human body—particularly their structure but also their ligaments, nerve and blood supply, and nutrition. Although the discussion focuses on human joints, its content is applicable to joints of vertebrates in general and mammals in particular. For information about the disorders and injuries that commonly affect human joints, see joint disease. - Source: Internet
• Neurons are the cells in our body that are responsible for transmitting electrical signals through the nervous system. The ability to move or feel the world around us all starts as an impulse sent by a neuron. This process helps us see, taste, touch, and move. In order to instantly facilitate these bodily processes, highly specialized neurons are used to transmit these signals and coordinate the body. - Source: Internet
• The afferent (sensory) division : collects incoming sensory information; made up of cranial and spinal nerves that contain sensory neurons. Sensory neurons transmit sensory information from the skin, skeletal muscle, and sensory organs to the CNS. Without its afferent nervous system, an animal would be unable to receive or process any information about its environment (what it sees, feels, hears, and so on). - Source: Internet

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## Here are some crucial points concerning Peripheral Nervous System:

• What Are The 3 Types Of Articular System
• What Are The Different Types Of Nervous Systems
• What Are The 3 Types Of Nervous System
• What Are The 3 Types Of Muscular System
• What Are The 3 Types Of Nervous System Class 10

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